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Cognitive Psychology Meets the Lexicon of Linguistics, 2004.
Explains the cognitive processes of understanding sentences with anaphoric references.
1,853 words (approx. 7.4 pages), 2 sources, MLA, $ 59.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the use of anaphors, an element of language that can only be understood contextually, in the English language. More specifically, an anaphor is defined as an element of speech that depends for its reference on the reference of another element. The paper looks at the syntactic constraints on anaphoric reference and how the use of anaphors can completely change the meaning of a sentence. Also discussed is the importance of sequencing in language and how anaphors refer to sequential aspects of language patterning.
From the Paper
"One could argue, of course, that either way, this is irrelevant, as the two ideas are interrelated?when boring people visit one?s home, life often feels quite boring, just as visiting boring people can itself be quite boring! However, to determine the precise semantic meaning in a sequential fashion, one must understand the context the speaker is speaking from. Is it that dear Aunt Mary and Uncle Bob are boring people, and the speaker finds these unwelcome visiting relatives to be unpleasant intruders in his or her happy home? Or is the speaker dreading suffering through a visit to these two individuals? home for a dreary Thanksgiving of dry talk and dry turkey?"
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The Meaning of the Word "Implication", 2004.
Looks at John Corcoran's work on the true definition of the word "implications" in all its variations.
2,916 words (approx. 11.7 pages), 12 sources, APA, $ 86.95
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Abstract
This paper summarizes, analyzes, and critiques John Corcoran's work, in which he puts the different definitions of the word "implications" into distinct, well-defined, recognizable contexts. The paper reviews Corcoran's work from the perspectives of history, logic, philosophy, and linguistics.
From the Paper
"In his paper, Corcoran lists several ?implication? phrases in common English usage which presuppose that the premise ?A? is true and that validates the conclusion B. Corcoran also critiques the philosopher/mathematician Frege in that Frege?s thesis on logic is constrained by his instincts. Corcoran avers that Frege included pure logic in his thinking and did not make room for deduction as a major contributor to the concept of implication. ?Frege's strategy was to show that no appeal to intuition is required for the derivation of the theorems of number theory. This in turn required that he show that the latter are derivable using only rules of inference, axioms, and definitions that are purely analytic principles of logic(Ref)??which he did not."
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Role of Language in Cultural Identity, 2002.
Discusses whether Ebonics should be implemented in the American educational system.
2,143 words (approx. 8.6 pages), 4 sources, MLA, $ 67.95
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Abstract
Perhaps more than any other debate in education, the study of language brings up questions of power and identity. How teachers and classmates view the home language of students and their families plays a major role in teachers' expectations and respect for a student's culture, as well as how easily the student will be able to learn and meet long-term educational goals. The paper shows that solving the complex social and economic problems in the U.S. that limit the educational opportunities of African Americans, particularly males, is not an easy task. Still, many educators are introducing new practices targeted specifically to the unique needs of this group. The paper shows that many researchers agree that one of the first steps that must be taken in advancing the educational level of African-American students is to implement Ebonics into inner city curricula. This paper examines the role of Ebonics in cultural identity in an effort to determine whether or not Ebonics should be implemented in classrooms or curricula.
From the Paper
"By implementing Ebonics into school curriculums, teachers are fine-tuning the learning process towards the unique needs of African American students, rather than drilling them on the proper use of grammar and dialect. For example, teachers could use mini-lessons according to the dialect learning needs that students demonstrate. If the students agree that Standard English is appropriate for classroom interaction and for writing, lessons like these would help students reach their language development goals."
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Language Acquisition, 2002.
A discussion of different methods for teaching a second language.
2,301 words (approx. 9.2 pages), 12 sources, MLA, $ 71.95
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Abstract
This paper looks at how there is no best way to teach language and how many methods have been adapted and modified throughout the years to find what style best accommodates the need of the learner. It shows that when teaching language, it is imperative that the teacher provides a safe and comfortable learning environment and treats language learning as a social process where comprehensible input is a must when expecting comprehensible output from the students. It explores three methods used to teach language acquisition, the natural approach, communicative language teaching and grammar translation. It outlines each method and includes a discussion of the various techniques utilized for that method. It will also compares while contrasting the three methods and focuses on the various needs of the student.
From the Paper
"The linguistic part of human communication is only a part of the total picture that humans use to relay messages to each other. ?At least one applied linguist has gone so far as to claim that, "We communicate so much information non-verbally in conversations that often the verbal aspect of the conversation is negligible" (Rodgers, 2001). Even with all of the body language that is involved with communication, language teaching has chosen to restrict its attention to the linguistic element of human communication, even when the approach is labeled Communicative. The methodological proposal is to provide instructional focus on the non-linguistic aspects of communication, which includes rhythm, speed, pitch, intonation, tone, and hesitation phenomena in speech and gesture, facial expression, posture, and distance in non-verbal messaging. When using the Communicative Language method, the teacher?s role is to act as a needs analyst and task designer while the learner is in the roles of improviser and negotiator."
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Bilingual First Language Acquisition, 2002.
An examination of early language development theory for potential bilingual children.
7,808 words (approx. 31.2 pages), 35 sources, MLA, $ 169.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the criteria for measuring early language development, the concepts associated with ascertaining a child?s developmental progress, the research supporting the prevailing theories and the significant findings inherent in credible research in these areas. It discusses how all over the globe young children seem to effortlessly acquire two or more languages at one time, while some uphold the belief that children who are exposed to multiple languages too early may experience developmental language delays and/or confusion. It evaluates how scientific research has attempted to examine whether young bilinguals can ascertain that they are acquiring two separate and distinct languages early on.
Outline
Introduction
Research and Analysis
Bilingual Paradox
Bilingual Deficit Hypothesis
Unitary Language System Hypothesis
Bilingual Advantage Hypothesis
Differentiated Language System Hypothesis
Vocabulary Development
The MacArthur CDI
Linguistic Milestones
Lexical Identifiers
Neutrals
Translation Equivalents
Interlocutor Sensitivity
Language Choice
Codemixing
Parental Discourse Strategies
Early Constraints
Conclusion
Bibliography
From the Paper
"The line of thought that resembles popular opinion about whether or not children should be raised bilingual from birth is called the ?Bilingual Paradox?. It is a paradox because there are conflicting contemporary theories about whether or not it is the preferred method of introducing two languages. While much research shows that, by several measures, children who are exposed to two languages simultaneously between the ages of zero and three achieve major milestones within the same timeframe and with similar results as monolinguals, the contemporary line of thought has been to teach a child one language early on, reserving the introduction of a second language for the later school years. The thinking associated with the latter opinion is that introducing two languages early on will confuse the child, or that the child will be disadvantaged in mastery of one or both languages. There are, however, steps parents can take early on based on proven research to give their child an advantage in learning language skills. Methodologies, tools, timing mechanisms and support strategies have been developed through testing and observation that aids children in successful and timely language development, specifically in the adoption of multiple languages."
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Hermeneutics: A Critical Approach to Literature, 2002.
Examines the study of Hermeneutics and how this philosophy can be used to analyze literature from a different perspective.
2,014 words (approx. 8.1 pages), 9 sources, MLA, $ 63.95
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Abstract
This paper defines Hermeneutics as "the theory or philosophy of the interpretation of meaning". This paper examines the origins of this philosophy in order to better understand its uses today. After discussing the major contributors to the development of this study, the paper mentions some writings which provide a hermetical analysis of literature. These include Leonard Orr?s "De-structuring the Novel: Essays in Applied Postmodern Hermeneutics" and Hans-Georg Gadamer's "Dialogue and Dialectic: Eight Hermeneutical Studies on Plato".
From the Paper
"Furthermore, hermeneutical criticism is often compared to a dialogue. The reader and the text respond to each other until understanding is reached. This hermeneutic conversation avoids the one-sidedness that is associated with other critical approaches. Gadamer believes that it allows the interpreter to use questions as the "universal mediator in the dialectic between the prejudice prior to the encounter with the work and the new element which denounces it . . .?(Orr Dictionary 231). Theorists refer to the conversation between the interpreter and text as spiel (game or play). But David Haliburton warns that calling this interaction play does not ?reduce it to a hedonistic pastime . . . playing is a high and serious act" (Orr Dictionary 232). And unlike other types of play, such as chess, the game is an ongoing process that never ends."
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Contractarianism & Neo-Intuitionism in Ethics, 2002.
This paper explains the terms contractarinism and neo-Intuitionism and gives an overview of their positive and negative characteristics with regards to ethics.
994 words (approx. 4.0 pages), 1 source, MLA, $ 35.95
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Abstract
Contractarianism is a form of social contract, one which nonetheless is a tacit one. The writer looks into this term and follows with a comparison to neo-Intuitionism. In the end we see that the bottom line for the compatibility of intuition with ethics rests upon the condition that, while intuitions can be useful, they must never be our final arbiters.
From the Paper
"If we expect from others only that they not interfere with our activities?save if those activities threaten to harm them?then we can say that they are honouring our negative right to liberty. A negative right amounts to being a right to non-interference; that is, that people not do certain things. Positive rights, on the other hand, require that we do something for, or provide something to others. In a sense, however, positive rights include negative rights, since positive rights are simply added on. A note of caution though: the more positive rights which are added?and this is why the earlier qualification ?in a sense??the greater the chances that negative rights will be usurped."
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Rhetoric, 2002.
This paper discusses the philosophies of Mikhail Bakhtin.
1,230 words (approx. 4.9 pages), 1 source, MLA, $ 41.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the beliefs and philosophies of the rhetorical theorist Mikhail Bakhtin. Amongst the ideas examined are Bakhtin's belief that everything ideological possesses a meaning which is indicated by a sign and how he unified physical utterance and the written word. The author also identifies which of Saussure's ideas Bakhtin accepted and which he rejected.
From the Paper
"Mikhail Bakhtin, in his rhetoric, mixes literary criticism with rhetoric, following in the footsteps of Saussure and others in this regard. At the same time, Bakhtin rejected many of Saussure's ideas, such as that "the meaning of discourse is to be found in the psychological processing of signs" (911). Saussure's approach is also known as Structuralism and has been applied to a wide variety of forms of human communication. In literary criticism, for instance, the Structuralist approach owes much to linguistic studies and to ideas about language in general. Bakhtin in his literary criticism rejected the distinction between literary and ordinary language and so attacked the existing Russian Formalist school. The Formalists sought to isolate the text, while Bakhtin did not."
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John Locke's "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding", 2002.
This book presents a review of the psychological work of John Locke, concerning the workings of human congition.
1,035 words (approx. 4.1 pages), 1 source, MLA, $ 36.95
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Abstract
The paper begins by discussing Locke?s refutation of ?innate understanding?. It looks at Locke?s explanation of the concept of and ?idea?, distinguishing between ?simple? and ?complex? ideas. It lists the division of simple ideas into four categories and also brings in the three steps involved in the creation of simple ideas. It discusses the procedures involved in complex ideas and then moves on to the connection between ideas and language, and the relationship of these processes with knowledge. The paper concludes with a synopsis and evaluation of Locke?s theories.
From the Paper
"Locke has explained his theories on how the human mind is developed and nurtured. Due to man?s unique ability to perceive and to process information differently from another, it is unimportant if a person is associated with the same man as another or with the same immaterial substances as another. Locke has made it very clear that a human mind is as blank as a sheet of white paper waiting to be written upon. The perceptions and discernment of the mind determine what knowledge a person may have and how he uses it."
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Cryptography, 2002.
An overview of the science of cryptography - the creation of a pattern by switching letters around.
2,770 words (approx. 11.1 pages), 6 sources, APA, $ 82.95
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Abstract
Kids decoder rings in cereal boxes, the puzzles in the comic pages of the daily newspapers and high-tech encryption all have something in common, they are all variations of cryptography. The paper shows how, ever since the early days of civilization, people have been trying to encode massages to keep secrets from falling into the hands of the wrong person. Today the science and math of cryptography go way beyond switching letters around according to a certain pattern, but if a person remembers that the basic idea is the same, cryptography can be a fascinating endeavor into math, science, and even into language itself. This paper reviews the history of cryptography and the many things encryption has been used for in the past. It then looks at how encryption is used in modern times and for what purposes. The paper explains cryptography from a mathematical point of view, following the development of encryption and cryptography mathematically. Finally, it looks at the future of this science.
From the Paper
"One of the most important developments came in the form of the Wheel Cipher. The Wheel Cipher was created by Thomas Jefferson, possibly with the help of Dr. Robert Patterson, a mathematician at the University of Pennsylvania. In 1913, Captain Parket Hitt reinvented the Wheel Cipher in strip form. This lead to the creation M-138 -A, used in World War II. Just a few years later in 1916, Major Joseph O. Mauborgne ut Hitt?s strip cipher back into the wheel form, strengthened the alphabet construction, and produced the device that would lead to the M-94 cipher device. These devices, along with encryption courtesy of the Navajo people, helped the allies defeat Germany, Japan, and Italy in World War II."
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Military Jargon in Modern English, 2002.
How military jargon and slang has impacted the modern English language.
1,487 words (approx. 5.9 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 49.95
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Abstract
This paper studies the origins of military jargon and measures the influence of military jargon and slang on the English language. It shows how the conquesting armies of the colonial British government adopted many phrases, words and slang which have made their way into everyday spoken English. It compares how British soldiers and American soldiers, when interacting in the World Wars, transfered military slang between each other.
From the Paper
"The English language has been going through the evolution process for hundreds of years. A number of words that were not recognized a few hundred years back are now commonly used. English has been continuously changing for centuries because of several reasons. Influence of other societies and cultures on English is the primary reason for this continuous change. Moreover, several military adventures conducted by the British Empire, which led to the expansion of the United Kingdom to almost one fourth of the earth?s surface, also significantly influenced the English language. During these military operations, several English soldiers were exposed to some new cultures and societies. As a result of the influence from other cultures, they started using jargons and slang in their conversation, which were primarily adopted from several foreign languages. Similarly, American soldiers also adopted some jargons and slang during the Wars fought by American Army. "
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"A Journey into the Deaf-World", 2002.
A review of the book "A Journey into the Deaf-World" by Harlan Lane, Robert Hoffmeister and Ben Bahan about Deaf-World culture.
1,725 words (approx. 6.9 pages), 1 source, MLA, $ 55.95
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Abstract
The paper examines the book "A Journey into the Deaf-World" by Harlan Lane, Robert Hoffmeister and Ben Bahan. It discusses how the book covers many technical issues in detail, but the underpinning for all of it is that the Deaf-World is its own unique culture with its own unique language and is every bit as much of a subculture as it is to be African-American or some branch of Hispanic. It looks at how the beliefs of people in the Deaf-World about their culture and language are challenged by people charged with helping them: educators, psychologists, audiologists, social workers and others all tend to think of hearing loss as a disability. It provides a detailed history of sign language and the use of ASL (American Sign Language).
From the Paper
"Many people in the Deaf-World object to this view. They know the richness of their language and understand its cultural significance, which the authors broke out into several sections. They note that ASL is a symbol of identity for people in the Deaf-World. In addition, it is the only language they can use to communicate with each other. It binds them together. One fear the Deaf-World has is that forced oral communication will undermine their culture, because it will force deaf people with no sign language skills to talk only with non-deaf people."
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Fiction vs. Non-fiction, 2002.
A discussion of reading comprehension and the differences in comprehension of fiction versus non-fiction reading.
4,050 words (approx. 16.2 pages), 9 sources, $ 109.95
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Abstract
The paper starts with a general discussion of reading comprehension and its importance for academic success. Factors involved in reading comprehension, such as phonological memory and word recognition, are examined, as well as other influential forces, such as time limitation and silent reading are outlined. Then the topic of comprehension of fiction versus non-fiction material is explored through a review of the relevant literature.
From the Paper
"Literacy and reading comprehension are subjects that have been explored for decades. Through these explorations we have discovered that comprehension is an essential component in the ability of a person to succeed in academia and in life. Comprehension is defined as ?the act or action of grasping with the intellect?the capacity for understanding fully.?(The Dictionary) Comprehension is important because it allows us to gain knowledge of new concepts; without comprehension it would be impossible to learn anything.
"This discourse will present a literary review of the aforementioned topic so that we can understand comprehension and the effect of comprehension on academic success. The literature presented will seek to display this information in a manner that will inform and enlighten.
Reading comprehension covers a broad range of topics. For the purposes of this literary review we will seek to explain what comprehension is and the effect that fiction and nonfiction works have on comprehension. This review will use a wide range of sources including journals, digests and academic studies."
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The Three Paradigms of Spelling Instruction, 2002.
This research paper uses Taylor-Heald?s article on ?Three Paradigms of Spelling Instruction in Grades 3 to 6? as a basis for identifying each of the methods.
2,065 words (approx. 8.3 pages), 8 sources, APA, $ 65.95
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Abstract
The following paper describes each method in the article by Taylor-Heald, where three paradigms are identified as the traditional, the transitional and the student-oriented. Each of these paradigms is a model for teaching children the basic and fundamental concept of spelling. This paper examines how each method is utilized and also discusses Taylor-Heald's view on each of the methods. After looking at each of the methods separately, the writer examines, briefly, the major differences between the methods. It then discusses the implications of each of the methods, including how each method is used and the benefits of each method. This also includes looking at various other research studies that offer perspectives on the teaching of spelling. Finally the paper concludes by showing how the student-oriented approach does appear to be the most promising approach, just as Taylor-Heald suggests.
From the Paper
?The traditional paradigm, as the name suggests, is the main method of instruction that has been used in the American school system to teach spelling and also to teach the basics of language. The method is based on students being taught vocabulary in the form of words that do not relate to each other. These words are random and have no relationship to each other, or to anything else being taught to the students. The teacher gives these words to the students, with the students expected to memorize them and the students are tested on this at the end of the week.This approach assumes that students know nothing at the beginning and that all information must be given to them. This includes the idea that children have no knowledge of words, sounds or language.?
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Theory of Universal Pragmatics, 2002.
The following paper examines and critically analyzes Jorgen Habermas? theory of universal pragmatics.
2,300 words (approx. 9.2 pages), 11 sources, APA, $ 70.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the study of general and universal aspects of language with specific reference to Jorgen Habermas? rules for using and understanding language rationally. The goal of universal pragmatics is to identify and reconstruct conditions of possible understanding. The advantages and disadvantages of Habermas? ?Universal Pragmatics? are discussed. It is of the writer?s opinion that Habermas' emphasis on systematization and organization at times forces linguistic phenomena into pre-established categories, which leaves little room for nuances, details or humanly necessary embellishments.
From the Paper
?This concept when adequately applied extends across the boundaries of culture and language, e.g. two Englishmen would use the same formulations to communicate in English, as would two Frenchmen?in French.? In this seminal work, in the book, ?Communication and Evolution of Society,? Habermas provides a simple construct for ideal communication (Habermas 1979). Throughout ?What is Universal Pragmatics?? he maintains that all the complexities of sentence structures and their utterances are successfully communicated if an original intent is adhered to. Habermas maintains, that each form of communication, direct and otherwise, is to reach understanding. Such a pure communication is only possible if it is conducted?in a nutshell?clearly and honestly.?
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